Q: How is semi-sparkling wine produced?

Sparkling wines are wines with carbonic acid , whereby the pressure must be between 1 and 2.5 bar. A distinction is made between exogenous and endogenous carbon ic acid. Exogenous carbon ic acid (more precisely: the gas carbon dioxide , which then dissolves in the liquid in the form of carbonic acid) is added to the still wine after it is finished in a pressure tank (impregnation process ). In this case, the gas does not come from wine production, but is usually technically produced. The end product must then be called "sparkling wine with added carbonic acid". Endogenous carbonic acid , on the other hand, comes from wine production (because during fermentation the yeast converts the sugar of the grapes into alcohol and carbon dioxide ). It is either also (re)added to the finished still wine in the pressurised tank or is produced during a second fermentation of the base wine , during which the carbon dioxide formed cannot escape and therefore dissolves in the wine. Wines with a carbonic acid pressure of 3 to 6 bar are called sparkling wines .

Q: What is non-alcoholic wine?

Non-alcoholic Wine has a maximum of 0.5 percent by volume or 4 grams per litre of alcohol . In contrast, there is also low-alcohol Wine, which may have between 0.5 and 5 percent alcohol by volume. To obtain alcohol-free wine, the alcohol produced by fermentation is removed from finished wine (i.e. wine that has been completely vinified in the regular way). This alcohol reduction can be achieved by a number of physical processes. The most common of these are vacuum distillation (distillation at negative pressure between 30 and 60°C) and reverse osmosis (with a semi-permeable membrane and pressure increase). Other methods for reducing the alcohol content, some of which are not permitted in all wine-growing countries , are nanofiltration, high-pressure extraction, electrodialysis , pervaporation or the spinning cone column. The aim is always to remove the alcohol from the wine, but at the same time as little aroma substances as possible

Question 1

What is vegan wine?

Accepted Answer

Vegan refers to wine that has been produced without the use of products of animal origin.

Animal products can be used in fining, for example, to remove lees from the wine. Such lees are residues from winemaking and can be bound by proteins. These proteins are usually obtained from hens' eggs (egg white), milk(casein), animal bones, cartilage and skins(gelatine) or the swim bladders of fish(isinglass).

The proteins are exclusively aids in wine production and are filtered out of the wine after fining together with the bound lees.

Vegan wine, for example, can be fined with mineral clay(bentonite) instead of egg white. In vegetarian wine, only gelatine and fish bladder are not used as fining agents

Question 2

What is tartar?

Accepted Answer

Tartar is the name given to the crystalline salts of tartaric acid. Their chemical name is tartrate. These salts are formed when tartaric acid reacts with minerals (e.g. potassium and calcium). Essentially, tartar consists of potassium hydrogen tartrate and calcium tartrate.

The tartaric acid salts are poorly soluble in water and and therefore form crystals, i.e. their molecules join together to form a regular, lattice-like, solid structure; the technical term for this is: the salt precipitates.

The tartar settles in the form of the small crystals in the(stainless steel) tank or barrel during winemaking and can also collect at the bottom of the bottle or on the cork after bottling as the wine matures. Factors that favour the precipitation of tartar are a high alcohol content, an increased pH value (from 3.2) as well as low temperatures.

Tartar is absolutely harmless to health. It tastes neutral, at most slightly acidic, and initially reminds the mouth of sand, but dissolves quickly due to the action of the saliva.

Tartar is not a wine defect, but it is also not a designated quality characteristic. Its occurrence merely means that the wine contains a high proportion of tartaric acid and may not have been completely stabilised. The formation of tartar can be largely prevented by treating the wine chemically (e.g. with metatartaric acid) or physically (with cold) before bottling.

Question 3

What is depot?

Accepted Answer

Depot is the term used to describe the sediment that forms in the course of bottle ageing, especially in full-bodied, tannin-rich red wines. The deposit is caused by the individual molecules of certain ingredients of the wine (especially colouring agents and tannins) joining together to form larger molecular chains. This so-called polymerisation is a completely natural process that occurs more frequently in wines that have not been filtered before bottling. By not filtering, one wants to preserve all the diversity and intensity of the wine's aromas.

Depot is not a wine defect, but rather a quality characteristic, because it makes the substance of the wine visible, so to speak, and indicates drinking maturity. Even if the deposit is harmless to health (it only tastes bitter), it is separated from the wine for aesthetic reasons before enjoying it by decanting it. This is done by carefully decanting the wine from the bottle into a carafe so that the sediment remains in the bottle.

Question 4

What laws and regulations apply to wine production?

Accepted Answer

In all wine-growing countries of the world, wine production is regulated in some form by law.

In the countries of the European Union, the EU wine market regulation and the EU organic wine regulation form the essential, binding foundations for viticulture, wine production and wine marketing. The provisions of these regulations must be implemented into national law by the EU member states.

In Germany, the Wine Act and the Wine Ordinance are the central pieces of legislation for the wine sector on this basis. Furthermore, the regulations of plant protection and fertiliser law, food law, competition law, consumer protection law, commercial law and corresponding other relevant laws apply.

In addition, the guidelines of the International Organisation of Vine and Wine (OIV) are valid, which, as a supranational organisation, has no legislative competence, but whose specifications are binding for the member countries.

Member wineries of winegrowers' and agricultural associations such as Verband Deutscher Prädikatsweingüter (VDP), ECOVIN, Bioland, Naturland or Demeter must adhere to their stricter regulations than the statutory provisions.

Question 5

How is white wine made?

Accepted Answer

The essential steps of winemaking after the grape harvest are pressing, fermentation, ageing, fining and bottling. The fundamental difference in the production of white and red wine is that fermentation takes place after pressing(must fermentation) for white wine and before pressing(mash fermentation) for red wine.

All of the steps and treatment methods mentioned below are permissible under wine and food law. However, not all measures have to be applied, as some are at the expense of the aroma diversity, fineness, depth and balance of the wine.

Harvest

The time of harvest depends on the ripeness of the grapes, the weather conditions and the desired wine type. How quickly the grapes ripen depends on the grape variety and the weather throughout the year and especially in autumn. The grapes for Prädikat wines require a higher must weight and must therefore hang on the vine for a particularly long time.

The grapes are harvested either by hand or with the help of machines(harvesters). Mechanical harvesting is very fast and requires less labour, which is generally an economic advantage and, if the weather is unstable or bad at harvest time, also a very practical advantage that can even save the wine quality. Often a negative selection takes place beforehand, in which grapes that do not meet the quality requirements are cut to the ground. More time-consuming is the Hand harvest. Its advantage is that only the ripe grapes (or the rotten ones) are selectively harvested in several passes with time intervals. In Germany, hand harvesting is even required by law for wines of higher ratings, and in steep slopes the use of machines is not possible anyway.

After the grapes have been cut from the vine, they are brought to the winery quickly and, if possible, without damage. The size of the collection containers plays a significant role in whether the berries remain intact, as the weight bearing down on the grapes below can already cause their berry skins to partially burst. Sometimes the grapes are cooled during transport to the winery to keep the aromas fresh.

At the winery, additional selection sometimes takes place: unusable grapes are discarded and/or rotten and diseased berries are cut out of the grapes.

Preparation of the pressing

First, the grapes are destemmed: the individual berries are freed from the stems and crests, the grape skeleton (rape). This destemming is not necessary for whole bunch pressing, which produces stronger white wines with a slight tannin.

Afterwards, the berries are lightly crushed to burst the skins so that the escaping juice can release the colour and aroma substances from the skins. (The resulting mash - the mixture of juice, pulp, skins and pips - is, depending on the quality of the grapes and the intended processing time, generally sulphurisedin order to avoid premature, wild fermentation or oxidation.

Through the addition of Enzymes enzymes can be added to increase the flavour and colour yield. The enzymes also make the mash easier to press: The juice comes out of the berries better, and because the pressing pressure can be kept lower, fewer tannins and bitter substances are extracted.

Pressing

For the actual pressing process (the Pressing) there are several technologies. What they all have in common is that mechanical pressure is applied to the mash, thus separating the juice from the solids. These then remain as pomace.

A basic distinction is made between vertical and horizontal presses; concrete examples are tree or basket presses, screw presses, spindle presses, screw presses, tube presses and pneumatic presses, which allow particularly fine regulation of the pressure.

Preparation for fermentation

After pressing, the must - the liquid obtained by pressing - is re-sulphurised if necessary to avoid uncontrolled fermentation or oxidation, and then clarified. Clarification is done either by simply letting the must stand for a while to allow the lees to settle to the bottom of the tank, or by biochemical and/or physical processes such as the addition of enzymes, filtration or centrifugation. A common method of pre-clarification is flotation: In this process, the must is impregnated with air or nitrogen under pressure and then depressurised again. The resulting fine gas bubbles draw the lees upwards in the tank so that the clear juice can simply be drawn off at the bottom.

To correct any off-flavours and to "adjust" the colouring substances correctly, you can use Activated carbon can be used.

By means of several physical processes, the must can be concentrated the must:

In Reverse osmosiswater is removed from the must so that the relative proportion of the remaining ingredients(extract) increases. In this process, the must is in a chamber that is separated from a chamber with water by a semi-permeable membrane. By increasing the pressure in the must chamber, water molecules migrate from the must chamber into the water chamber.
During vacuum distillation, water is also removed from the must, so that the relative proportion of the remaining ingredients (extract) increases. The process makes use of the fact that the boiling point of water drops at low pressure. At a pressure of 0.03 bar, water boils (i.e. evaporates) in the must already at a temperature of about 25°C. The resulting vapour is cooled on a cooling rack. The resulting vapour condenses on cooled surfaces.
Freeze concentration (cryoextraction) follows a similar principle to that of ice wine production: The must is slowly cooled below 0°C until pure ice crystals form from water and the remaining ingredients concentrate. The ice crystals are then separated from the remaining liquid.

If the sugar content of the must is not sufficient for successful or desired fermentation, the must can be chaptalised, i.e. enriched with unfermented or fermented must or with sweet reserve to increase the alcohol or residual sugar content. In the case of Prädikat wines, chaptalisation is prohibited in Germany.

Fermentation

During fermentation, yeasts convert the sugar from the grapes into alcohol and carbon dioxide, producing heat. Yeasts are already present in the must in natural form if they have not been killed by some of the measures described above.

If these natural yeasts are used to ferment the must, this is called Spontaneous fermentation. However, this type of fermentation involves uncertainties because the natural yeasts may not be strong enough to complete the fermentation completely or may produce undesirable chemical compounds that can affect the aroma of the wine or even pose health risks. Therefore, the natural yeasts are often killed by sterilising the must in order to then carry out the fermentation in a controlled manner with pure-breeding ye asts.

Pure-breeding ye asts have certain properties that are known in advance because they have been specially bred for this purpose. This means that they can be specifically selected and used for the fermentation of the must. With appropriately bred yeasts, the aromatic character of the wine can also be extensively influenced (keyword: secondary aromas). The addition of fermentation aids and yeast nutrient salts can support the work of the pure-bred yeasts.

An important factor in fermentation is temperature. Traditionally, the fermentation temperature was more or less self-regulating and depended on the cellar temperature. In modern cellars, the fermentation tanks can be cooled and the fermentation temperature thus actively controlled: the lower the temperature, the slower the fermentation process(cold fermentation). The size of the fermentation tanks also affects the fermentation temperature: the smaller the tanks, the lower the fermentation temperature. The fermentation temperature and the associated fermentation time have a great influence on the style of the wine.

The yeasts usually work until either the sugar present in the grapes (or added) is completely converted into alcohol or the alcohol content becomes so high that the yeasts stop working. They then become sluggish and die off, as they cannot survive in an excessively alcoholic environment. Among the pure-breeding yeasts, however, there are particularly efficient types that can easily reach 16 percent by volume.

If the winemaker wants to produce a wine with residual sweetness, he can stop the fermentation prematurely. This can be done by cooling or by adding sulphur. A third variant is to leave the wine to ferment fully and then add sweet reserve to subsequently increase the sugar content of the wine again. The sweet reserve is unfermented (i.e. sweet) grape must that has been protected from undesired fermentation by sterilisation.

Vinification

The ageing of the wine, i.e. the maturation after fermentation, usually takes place in stainless steel tanks or in large or small wooden barrels. Other types of ageing are concrete tanks or - rarely - amphorae (although in these cases fermentation usually takes place in the amphora and ageing is mainly oxidative ).

Maturing in stainless steel tanks leads to reductive, fresh and fruity wines. Maturing in large wooden barrels leads to smoother, full-bodied wines, as the constant minimal air supply through the wooden walls causes micro-oxidation, which also makes the wine more durable. The small wooden barrel (Barrique) has the additional property that it releases toasty and smoky wood aromas as well as additional tannins into the wine; the wine thus becomes spicier and more complex.

Instead of putting the wine into the wood, one can recently also put the wood into the wine: Particularly in the New World, a wine with wood aromas may have been aged in stainless steel tanks, but it is given Oak chips have been added to it. This results in the characteristic taste, but the wine has to obtain the smoothness as with an ageing in wooden barrels in a different way with suitable treatment methods. The advantage for the producers: The use of wood chips is quicker and cheaper than ageing in barrique barrels; in addition, the wood influence can be better dosed this way, and the amount of wood needed is significantly less than for the production of a barrel.

If wines are matured in wooden barrels (especially in barriques), they often also undergo biological acid degradation (BSA). This is often also called malolactic fermentation but this process is not carried out by yeasts, but by lactic acid bacteria. These convert the strong malic acid into the milder lactic acid, making the wine smoother and rounder. BSA can also be actively initiated by the targeted addition of lactic acid bacteria if it does not occur on its own.

Fining and stabilisation

After fermentation or at the latest after the end of the ageing period, the young wine is fined, i.e. it is freed from undesirable substances. These are primarily trub substances (yeast residues, etc.) as well as compounds that can lead to turbidity or impair the taste after bottling. These suspended solids are bound with the help of additives that attract them due to an opposing electrical charge. These additives range from animal protein(hen's egg white, casein, gelatine, fish bladder) to chemical fining agents such as bentonite, silica sol, kaolin clay or activated carbon as well as copper sulphate and blood lye salt.

For further Stabilisationgum arabic can be used for further stabilisation.

Wines that are particularly rich in acidity can be deacidified can be deacidified by adding calcium or potassium carbonate, which causes tartaric acid to precipitate as salt crystals (tartrate), or by passing them through malolactic fermentation. The crystalline salts of tartaric acid are also colloquially known as tartar. They are odourless and tasteless and completely harmless to health, but in order to precipitate them for aesthetic reasons before bottling, the wine can also be cooled for several days to around freezing point; this process is called cold stabilisation. The addition of metatartaric acid (produced by esterification of tartaric acid) can prevent the formation of tartar for several months after bottling.

The bound suspended matter, precipitated crystals and residues of the fining agents added are removed after completion of the measures by Racking and then filtering and/or centrifuging the wine.

After fining and stabilisation, the young wine is usually sulphurised again to kill microorganisms and prevent oxidation.

To make the wine more durable, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) can be added before bottling. To give young, fruity white wines that are intended for quick consumption an extra freshness, carbonic acid can be added artificially before bottling.

Blending

Blending or cuveting takes place in the vast majority of wines. It is not only a matter of combining different grape varieties, but also, in the case of single-varietal wines, of bringing together different origins, vineyards, tanks and/or barrels. As a rule, it is not the grapes or the must that are blended, but only the fully matured young wines. After the assemblage (another synonym for blending), the finished wine finally matures for a certain time in the cellar to harmonise.

Incidentally, in Germany and many other countries, even if a grape variety, origin or vintage is specifically stated on the label, up to 15 per cent may contain wines from other grape varieties, sites or vintages without this having to be indicated.

Bottling

After a final filtration and the final sulphurisation - which are not necessary if the wine is ready for bottling directly after stabilisation, which includes both measures - the wine is bottled. Sterility is particularly important here to prevent impurities that can lead to secondary fermentation in the bottle, for example.

For this reason, bottling is usually done under protective gas (nitrogen or carbon dioxide). Sometimes, hot bottling is also carried out, in which the wine is heated to 55°C during filling in order to kill germs. However, this process can affect the aroma.

Question 6

How is red wine made?

Accepted Answer

The main steps in winemaking after the grape harvest are maceration, fermentation, pressing, ageing, fining and bottling. The fundamental difference in the production of red and white wine is that fermentation takes place before pressing in the case of red wine(mash fermentation) and after pressing in the case of white wine(must fermentation).

All of the steps and treatment methods mentioned below are permissible under wine and food law. However, not all measures have to be applied, as some are at the expense of the aroma diversity, fineness, depth and balance of the wine.

Harvest

The time of harvest depends on the ripeness of the grapes, the weather conditions and the desired wine type. How quickly the grapes ripen depends on the grape variety and the weather throughout the year and especially in autumn. The grapes for Prädikat wines require a higher must weight and must therefore hang on the vine for a particularly long time.

The grapes are harvested either by hand or with the help of machines(harvesters). Mechanical harvesting is very fast and requires less labour, which is generally an economic advantage and, if the weather is unstable or bad at harvest time, also a very practical advantage that can even save the wine quality. Often a negative selection takes place beforehand, in which grapes that do not meet the quality requirements are cut to the ground. More time-consuming is the Hand harvest. Its advantage is that only the ripe grapes (or the rotten ones) are selectively harvested in several passes with a time interval. In Germany, hand harvesting is even required by law for wines of higher ratings, and in steep slopes the use of machines is not possible anyway.

After the grapes have been cut from the vine, they are brought to the winery quickly and, if possible, without damage. The size of the collection containers plays a significant role in whether the berries remain intact, as the weight bearing down on the grapes below can already cause their berry skins to partially burst. Sometimes the grapes are cooled during transport to the winery to keep the aromas fresh.

At the winery, additional selection sometimes takes place: unusable grapes are discarded and/or rotten and diseased berries are cut out of the grapes.

Preparation for fermentation

First the grapes are destemmedthe individual berries are freed from the stems and crests, the grape skeleton (rape). Often, however, this is not done in order to give the wine more structure and tannin later on.

Then the berries are lightly crushed to burst the skins so that the escaping juice can release the colour and aroma substances from the skins. The mixture of juice, pulp, skins and seeds is the mash. Depending on the quality of the grapes and the intended duration of processing, it is usually sulphurisedin order to avoid premature, wild fermentation or oxidation.

After crushing, the juice that has already run out can be separated (Juice extraction). This has less colouring and tannin compared to the juice that is produced later. At the same time, a higher proportion of colour and tannin remains in the mash, which results in stronger red wines. The juice extracted at this early stage can - depending on the colour intensity - be used to produce rosé wine or white wine from red grapes(Blanc de Noirs).

The colouring substances of the grape(anthocyanins) - with the exception of the so-called teinturier grapes, which also have a red pulp - are located exclusively in the berry skins. For red wine production, they have to be extracted from there, which is mainly done by fermentation. However, the extraction of the colour, aroma and tannins from the grape skins can be accelerated or intensified by various processes:

Through the addition of Enzymes the addition of enzymes can further increase the aroma and colour yield. The enzymes also make the mash easier to process, as the juice comes out of the berries better.
To extract additional aromas and colour from the grape skins, the mash can be cooled and thus left to stand for a while without fermentation starting. This process is called Cold maceration.
Conversely, the mash can also be heated to bring more colour and extract into the wine. This also kills any germs that may be present, which makes fermentation less risky. The mash is brought to a temperature between 60°C and 85°C and then pressed. This is followed by fermentation, which in this respect is not a mash fermentation but a must fermentation. The Mash heating with subsequent must fermentation is easier to handle than the otherwise usual fermentation on the mash, but the heat effect also changes the aroma structure of the wine, which is why this process is quite controversial.

A speciality is the so-called carbonic acid mashing or carbonic acid fermentation (carbonic maceration). In this process, there is no crushing of the grapes and, as a rule, no previous destemming. The uninjured fruit is exposed to a carbon dioxide atmosphere in a closed tank, which sets off an intracellular fermentation that dissolves the colouring substances. This is followed by regular maceration with yeasts. Red wines that have been produced in this way contain less tannins than conventionally produced red wines.

If the sugar content of the mash is not sufficient for successful or desired fermentation, the mash can be chaptalised, i.e. enriched with unfermented or fermented must or with sweet reserve to increase the alcohol or residual sugar content. In the case of Prädikat wines, chaptalisation is prohibited in Germany.

Even before fermentation, the mash can be freed from undesirable ingredients and/or characteristics by means of fining.

Fermentation

During fermentation, yeasts convert the sugar from the grapes into alcohol and carbon dioxide, generating heat. Yeasts are already present in the must in natural form if they have not been killed by some of the measures described above.

If these natural yeasts are used to ferment the must, this is called Spontaneous fermentation. However, this type of fermentation involves uncertainties because the natural yeasts may not be strong enough to complete the fermentation completely or may produce undesirable chemical compounds that can affect the aroma of the wine or even pose health risks. Therefore, the natural yeasts are often killed by sterilising the must in order to then carry out the fermentation in a controlled manner with pure-breeding ye asts.

Pure-breeding ye asts have certain properties that are known in advance because they have been specially bred for this purpose. This means that they can be specifically selected and used for the fermentation of the must. With appropriately bred yeasts, the aromatic character of the wine can also be extensively influenced (keyword: secondary aromas). The addition of fermentation aids and yeast nutrient salts can support the work of the pure-bred yeasts.

An important factor in fermentation is temperature. Traditionally, the fermentation temperature was more or less self-regulating and depended on the cellar temperature. In modern cellars, the fermentation tanks can be cooled and the fermentation temperature thus actively controlled: the lower the temperature, the slower the fermentation process(cold fermentation). The size of the fermentation tanks also affects the fermentation temperature: the smaller the tanks, the lower the fermentation temperature. The fermentation temperature and the associated fermentation time have a great influence on the style of the wine.

The yeasts usually work until either the sugar present in the grapes (or added) is completely converted into alcohol or the alcohol content becomes so high that the yeasts stop working. They then become sluggish and die off, as they cannot survive in an excessively alcoholic environment. Among the pure-breeding yeasts, however, there are particularly efficient types that can easily reach 16 percent by volume.

If the winemaker wants to produce a wine with residual sweetness, he can stop the fermentation prematurely. This can be done by cooling or by adding sulphur. A third variant is to leave the wine to ferment fully and then add sweet reserve to subsequently increase the sugar content of the wine again. The sweet reserve is unfermented (i.e. sweet) grape must that has been protected from undesired fermentation by sterilisation.

Pressing

Except in the case of mash heating, in which the colour, aroma and tannins are released from the grape skins by heat and not by the yeasts - see above - red wine is only pressed after fermentation.

For the actual pressing process (the Pressing) there are several technologies. What they all have in common is that mechanical pressure is applied to the mash, thus separating the juice from the solids. These then remain as pomace.

A basic distinction is made between vertical and horizontal presses; concrete examples are tree or basket presses, screw presses, spindle presses, screw presses, tube presses and pneumatic presses, which allow a particularly fine regulation of the pressure.

After pressing, the young wine is first re-sulphurised to prevent oxidation and then clarified. Clarification is done either by simply letting the must stand for a while to allow the lees to settle to the bottom of the tank, or by biochemical and/or physical processes such as the addition of enzymes, filtration or centrifugation. A common method of clarification is flotation: in this process, the must is impregnated with air or nitrogen under pressure and then depressurised again. The resulting fine gas bubbles draw the lees upwards in the tank so that the clear juice can simply be drawn off at the bottom.

To correct any off-flavours and to "adjust" the colouring substances correctly, you can use Activated carbon can be used.

Ageing

The ageing of the wine, i.e. the maturation after fermentation and pressing, is mostly done in stainless steel tanks or in large or small wooden barrels. Other types of ageing are concrete tanks or - rarely - amphorae (although here fermentation usually takes place in the amphora and ageing is mainly oxidative ).

Maturing in stainless steel tanks leads to reductive, fresh and fruity wines. Maturing in large wooden barrels leads to smoother, full-bodied wines, as the constant minimal air supply through the wooden walls causes micro-oxidation, which also makes the wine more durable. The small wooden barrel (Barrique) has the additional property that it releases toasty and smoky wood aromas as well as additional tannins into the wine; the wine thus becomes spicier and more complex.

Instead of putting the wine into the wood, one can recently also put the wood into the wine: Particularly in the New World, a wine with wood aromas may have been aged in stainless steel tanks, but it is given Oak chips have been added to it. This results in the characteristic taste, but the wine has to obtain the smoothness as with an ageing in wooden barrels in a different way with suitable treatment methods. The advantage for the producers: The use of wood chips is quicker and cheaper than ageing in barrique barrels; in addition, the wood influence can be better dosed this way, and the amount of wood needed is significantly less than for the production of a barrel.

To make the young red wine smoother and the tannins softer, oxygen can be added to it in precisely measured doses. This simulates the effect of ageing in a wooden barrel. This process is called Microoxigenation is called.

If wines are matured in wooden barrels (especially in barriques), they often also undergo biological acid degradation (BSA). This is often also called malolactic fermentation but this process is not carried out by yeasts, but by lactic acid bacteria. These convert the strong malic acid into the milder lactic acid, making the wine smoother and rounder. BSA is basically desirable in red wines and can also be actively initiated by the targeted addition of lactic acid bacteria if it does not occur on its own.

Fining and stabilisation

After fermentation or at the latest after the end of the ageing period, the young wine is fined, i.e. it is freed from undesirable substances. These are primarily trub substances (yeast residues, etc.) as well as compounds that can lead to turbidity or impair the taste after bottling. These suspended solids are bound with the help of additives that attract them due to an opposing electrical charge. These additives range from animal protein(hen's egg white, casein, gelatine, fish bladder) to chemical fining agents such as bentonite, silica sol, kaolin clay or activated carbon as well as copper sulphate and blood lye salt.

For further Stabilisationgum arabic can be used for further stabilisation and to reduce the astringent effect of tannin-rich wines.

Wines that are particularly rich in acid can be deacidified can be deacidified by adding calcium or potassium carbonate, which causes tartaric acid to precipitate as salt crystals ( tartrate ), or by passing them through malolactic fermentation. The crystalline salts of tartaric acid are also colloquially known as tartar. They are odourless and tasteless and completely harmless to health, but in order to precipitate them for aesthetic reasons before bottling, the wine can also be cooled for several days to around freezing point; this process is called cold stabilisation. The addition of metatartaric acid (produced by esterification of tartaric acid) can prevent the formation of tartar for several months after bottling.

The bound suspended matter, precipitated crystals and residues of the fining agents added are removed after completion of the measures by Racking and subsequent filtration and/or centrifugation.

After fining and stabilisation, the young wine is usually sulphurised again to kill microorganisms and prevent oxidation.

To make the wine more durable, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) can be added before bottling. To give young, fruity white wines that are intended for quick consumption an extra freshness, carbonic acid can be added artificially before bottling.

Blending

Blending or cuveting takes place in the vast majority of wines. It is not only a matter of combining different grape varieties, but also, in the case of single-varietal wines, of bringing together different origins, vineyards, tanks and/or barrels. As a rule, it is not the grapes or the must that are blended, but only the fully matured young wines. After the assemblage (another synonym for blending), the finished wine finally matures for a certain time in the cellar to harmonise.

Incidentally, in Germany and many other countries, even if a grape variety, origin or vintage is specifically stated on the label, up to 15 per cent may contain wines from other grape varieties, sites or vintages without this having to be indicated.

Bottling

After a final filtration and the final sulphurisation - which are not necessary if the wine is ready for bottling directly after stabilisation, which includes both measures - the wine is bottled. Sterility is particularly important here to prevent impurities that can lead to secondary fermentation in the bottle, for example.

For this reason, bottling is usually done under protective gas (nitrogen or carbon dioxide). Sometimes, hot bottling is also carried out, in which the wine is heated to 55°C during filling in order to kill germs. However, this process can affect the aroma.

Question 7

How is rosé wine made?

Accepted Answer

In principle,rosé wine is made exclusively from red wine grapes, because the colouring substances of the grape (anthocyanins) are located in the berry skins. However, it is essentially made like a white wine, as fermentation takes place after pressing(must fermentation). The essential steps of vinification after the grape harvest are short maceration, fermentation, pressing, maturation, fining and bottling.

All the steps and treatment processes mentioned below are permissible under wine and food law. However, not all measures have to be applied, as some are at the expense of the aroma diversity, fineness, depth and balance of the wine.

Harvest

The time of harvest depends on the ripeness of the grapes, the weather conditions and the desired wine type. How quickly the grapes ripen depends on the grape variety and the weather throughout the year and especially in autumn. The grapes for Prädikat wines require a higher must weight and must therefore hang on the vine for a particularly long time.

The grapes are harvested either by hand or with the help of machines(harvesters). Mechanical harvesting is very fast and requires less labour, which is generally an economic advantage and, if the weather is unstable or bad at harvest time, also a very practical advantage that can even save the wine quality. Often a negative selection takes place beforehand, in which grapes that do not meet the quality requirements are cut to the ground. More time-consuming is the Hand harvest. Its advantage is that only the ripe grapes (or the rotten ones) are selectively harvested in several passes with a time interval. In Germany, hand harvesting is even required by law for wines of higher ratings, and in steep slopes the use of machines is not possible anyway.

After the grapes have been cut from the vine, they are brought to the winery quickly and, if possible, without damage. The size of the collection containers plays a significant role in whether the berries remain intact, as the weight bearing down on the grapes below can already cause their berry skins to partially burst. Sometimes the grapes are cooled during transport to the winery to keep the aromas fresh.

At the winery, additional selection sometimes takes place: unusable grapes are discarded and/or rotten and diseased berries are cut out of the grapes.

Preparation of the pressing

First the grapes are destemmedthe individual berries are freed from the stems and crests, the grape skeleton (rape). Often, however, this is not done in order to give the wine more structure and tannin later on.

Then the berries are lightly crushed to burst the skins so that the escaping juice can release the colour and aroma substances from the skins. Depending on the quality of the grapes and the intended processing time, the resulting mash - the mixture of juice, pulp, skins and pips - is usually sulphuriseddepending on the quality of the grapes and the intended processing time, the mash is usually sulphurised at this point at the latest in order to prevent premature, wild fermentation or oxidation; if necessary, the mash is also cooled. The longer the mash is left to stand, the more intense the colour and aroma of the wine will be. As a rule, for rosé wines one Maceration time of a few hours is sufficient. Sometimes there is even no standing time at all, but on the other hand it can also be up to three days. The winemaker decides when to press the mash and ferment the must.

Through the addition of Enzymes enzymes can be added to increase the aroma and colour yield. The enzymes also make the mash easier to press: The juice comes out of the berries better, and because the pressing pressure can be kept lower, fewer tannins and bitter substances are extracted.

Alternatively, after crushing, the juice that has already run out can be separated (Juice extraction). This has less colouring and tannin compared to the juice that is produced later. The remaining mash is then processed into red wine, the extracted light red or pink must is fermented into rosé wine (pressing is not necessary).

Pressing

For the actual pressing process (the Pressing) there are several technologies. What they all have in common is that mechanical pressure is exerted on the mash, thus separating the juice from the solids. These then remain as pomace.

A basic distinction is made between vertical and horizontal presses; concrete examples are tree or basket presses, screw presses, spindle presses, screw presses, tube presses and pneumatic presses, which allow particularly fine regulation of the pressure.

Preparation for fermentation

After pressing, the must - the liquid obtained by pressing - is re-sulphurised if necessary to avoid uncontrolled fermentation or oxidation, and then clarified. Clarification is done either by simply letting the must stand for a while to allow the lees to settle to the bottom of the tank, or by biochemical and/or physical processes such as the addition of enzymes, filtration or centrifugation. A common method of pre-clarification is flotation: In this process, the must is impregnated with air or nitrogen under pressure and then depressurised again. The resulting fine gas bubbles draw the lees upwards in the tank so that the clear juice can simply be drawn off at the bottom.

To correct any off-flavours and to "adjust" the colouring substances correctly, you can use Activated carbon can be used.

By means of several physical processes, the must can be concentrated the must:

In Reverse osmosiswater is removed from the must so that the relative proportion of the remaining ingredients(extract) increases. In this process, the must is in a chamber that is separated from a chamber with water by a semi-permeable membrane. By increasing the pressure in the must chamber, water molecules migrate from the must chamber into the water chamber.
During vacuum distillation, water is also removed from the must, so that the relative proportion of the remaining ingredients (extract) increases. The process makes use of the fact that the boiling point of water drops at low pressure. At a pressure of 0.03 bar, water boils (i.e. evaporates) in the must already at a temperature of about 25°C. The resulting vapour is cooled on a cooling rack. The resulting vapour condenses on cooled surfaces.
Freeze concentration (cryoextraction) follows a similar principle to that of ice wine production: The must is slowly cooled below 0°C until pure ice crystals form from water and the remaining ingredients concentrate. The ice crystals are then separated from the remaining liquid.

If the sugar content of the must is not sufficient for successful or desired fermentation, the must can be chaptalised, i.e. enriched with nfermented or fermented must or with sweet reserve to increase the alcohol or residual sugar content. In the case of Prädikat wines, chaptalisation is prohibited in Germany.

Fermentation

During fermentation, yeasts convert the sugar from the grapes into alcohol and carbon dioxide, producing heat. Yeasts are already present in the must in natural form if they have not been killed by some of the measures described above.

If these natural yeasts are used to ferment the must, this is called Spontaneous fermentation. However, this type of fermentation involves uncertainties because the natural yeasts may not be strong enough to complete the fermentation completely or may produce undesirable chemical compounds that can affect the aroma of the wine or even pose health risks. Therefore, the natural yeasts are often killed by sterilising the must in order to then carry out the fermentation in a controlled manner with pure-breeding ye asts.

Pure-breeding ye asts have certain properties that are known in advance because they have been specially bred for this purpose. This means that they can be specifically selected and used for the fermentation of the must. With appropriately bred yeasts, the aromatic character of the wine can also be extensively influenced (keyword: secondary aromas). The addition of fermentation aids and yeast nutrient salts can support the work of the pure-bred yeasts.

An important factor in fermentation is temperature. Traditionally, the fermentation temperature was more or less self-regulating and depended on the cellar temperature. In modern cellars, the fermentation tanks can be cooled and the fermentation temperature thus actively controlled: the lower the temperature, the slower the fermentation process(cold fermentation). The size of the fermentation tanks also affects the fermentation temperature: the smaller the tanks, the lower the fermentation temperature. The fermentation temperature and the associated fermentation time have a great influence on the style of the wine.

The yeasts usually work until either the sugar present in the grapes (or added) is completely converted into alcohol or the alcohol content becomes so high that the yeasts stop working. They then become sluggish and die off, as they cannot survive in an excessively alcoholic environment. Among pure-breeding yeasts, however, there are particularly efficient types that can easily reach 16 percent by volume.

If the winemaker wants to produce a wine with residual sweetness, he can stop the fermentation prematurely. This can be done by cooling or by adding sulphur. A third variant is to leave the wine to ferment fully and then add sweet reserve to subsequently increase the sugar content of the wine again. The sweet reserve is unfermented (i.e. sweet) grape must that has been protected from undesired fermentation by sterilisation.

Vinification

The ageing of the wine, i.e. the maturation after fermentation, usually takes place in stainless steel tanks or in large or small wooden barrels. Other types of ageing are concrete tanks or - rarely - amphorae (although in these cases fermentation usually takes place in the amphora and ageing is mainly oxidative ).

Maturing in stainless steel tanks leads to reductive, fresh and fruity wines. Maturing in large wooden barrels leads to smoother, full-bodied wines, as the constant minimal air supply through the wooden walls causes micro-oxidation, which also makes the wine more durable. The small wooden barrel (Barrique) has the additional property that it releases toasty and smoky wood aromas as well as additional tannins into the wine; the wine thus becomes spicier and more complex.

Instead of putting the wine into the wood, one can recently also put the wood into the wine: Particularly in the New World, a wine with wood aromas may have been aged in stainless steel tanks, but it is given Oak chips have been added to it. This results in the characteristic taste, but the wine has to obtain the smoothness as with an ageing in wooden barrels in a different way with suitable treatment methods. The advantage for the producers: The use of wood chips is quicker and cheaper than ageing in barrique barrels; in addition, the wood influence can be better dosed this way, and the amount of wood needed is significantly less than for the production of a barrel.

If wines are matured in wooden barrels (especially in barriques), they often also undergo biological acid degradation (BSA). This is often also called malolactic fermentation but this process is not carried out by yeasts, but by lactic acid bacteria. These convert the strong malic acid into the milder lactic acid, making the wine smoother and rounder. BSA can also be actively initiated by the targeted addition of lactic acid bacteria if it does not occur on its own.

Fining and stabilisation

After fermentation or at the latest after the end of the ageing period, the young wine is fined, i.e. it is freed from undesirable substances. These are primarily trub substances (yeast residues, etc.) as well as compounds that can lead to turbidity or impair the taste after bottling. These suspended solids are bound with the help of additives that attract them due to an opposing electrical charge. These additives range from animal protein(hen's egg white, casein, gelatine, fish bladder) to chemical fining agents such as bentonite, silica sol, kaolin clay or activated carbon as well as copper sulphate and blood lye salt.

For further Stabilisationgum arabic can be used for further stabilisation.

Wines that are particularly rich in acidity can be deacidified can be deacidified by adding calcium or potassium carbonate, which causes tartaric acid to precipitate as salt crystals (tartrate), or by passing them through malolactic fermentation. The crystalline salts of tartaric acid are also colloquially known as tartar. They are odourless and tasteless and completely harmless to health, but in order to precipitate them for aesthetic reasons before bottling, the wine can also be cooled for several days to around freezing point; this process is called cold stabilisation. The addition of metatartaric acid (produced by esterification of tartaric acid) can prevent the formation of tartar for several months after bottling.

The bound suspended matter, precipitated crystals and residues of the fining agents added are removed after completion of the measures by Racking and then filtering and/or centrifuging the wine.

After fining and stabilisation, the young wine is usually sulphurised again to kill microorganisms and prevent oxidation.

To make the wine more durable, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) can be added before bottling. To give young, fruity white wines that are intended for quick consumption an extra freshness, carbonic acid can be added artificially before bottling.

Blending

Blending or cuveting takes place in the vast majority of wines. It is not only a matter of combining different grape varieties, but also, in the case of single-varietal wines, of bringing together different origins, vineyards, tanks and/or barrels. As a rule, it is not the grapes or the must that are blended, but only the fully matured young wines. After the assemblage (another synonym for blending), the finished wine finally matures for a certain time in the cellar to harmonise.

Incidentally, in Germany and many other countries, even if a grape variety, origin or vintage is specifically stated on the label, up to 15 per cent may contain wines from other grape varieties, sites or vintages without this having to be stated.

To make this quite clear once again: Rosé wine is not produced by blending white wine and red wine! The blending of white and red wine as well as the blending of white and red grape must is prohibited throughout the EU. Only the blending of white and red grapes before processing is permitted. (Exceptions sometimes apply to sparkling wine )

In Germany, there are some special rosé varieties:

Bottling

After a final filtration and the final sulphurisation - which are not necessary if the wine is ready for bottling directly after stabilisation, which includes both measures - the wine is bottled. Sterility is particularly important here to prevent impurities that can lead to secondary fermentation in the bottle, for example.

For this reason, bottling is usually done under protective gas (nitrogen or carbon dioxide). Sometimes, hot bottling is also carried out, in which the wine is heated to 55°C during filling in order to kill germs. However, this process can affect the aroma.

Question 8

How is sparkling wine made?

Accepted Answer

Sparkling wines are wines with carbonic acid that has been produced by a second fermentation. The pressure must be at least 3 bar, for quality sparkling wine (Sekt) at least 3.5 bar; the maximum value is 6 bar in each case. If the carbonic acid is artificially added to a still wine, it must be described as "sparkling wine with added carbonic acid".

For the second fermentation, a mixture of sugar and yeast, the so-called tirage liqueur, is added to the base wine (a finished still wine). The yeast then converts the sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide, making sure that this time the carbon dioxide does not escape - as is usual in the first fermentation - but that it dissolves in the liquid as carbonic acid.

The second fermentation can take place either in a pressure tank(Méthode charmat) or in the bottle (Méthode champenoise or Méthode classique). The transvasation process combines both methods.

With the Bottle fermentation the bottle is sealed airtight with a crown cork after the tirage liqueur has been added. The bottles are then stored horizontally in so-called riddling trays. Over a period of several months, they are turned around an eighth of a circle at regular intervals, each time with the neck of the bottle pointing downwards at a slight angle(remuage). In this way, the yeast sediment (the dead yeast after completion of the second fermentation) collects in the bottle neck directly below the crown cork. The longer the sparkling wine lies on the yeast, the finer and more differentiated it becomes in aroma and texture. The riddling can be done by hand or mechanically in so-called gyropalettes (computer-controlled riddling racks). Once the riddling and yeast storage are complete, the sparkling wine bottles are disgorged: Upside down, they travel through a cold bath that freezes the part of the liquid with the yeast residues. When the grain cork is then removed, the carbonic acid pressure in the bottle expels the yeast plug, leaving behind the finished, clear sparkling wine. The missing amount of liquid is then compensated for by the so-called shipping dosage. The shipping dosage is a mixture of (base) wine, sugar and possibly also brandy; it determines the residual sugar content of the sparkling wine. The bottle is then sealed with a cork and agraffe. This process is used in particular in the production of champagne.

In the transvasation process, disgorging is omitted: After completion of the second fermentation, the bottles are opened and emptied into large tanks with the lees. These are then cooled down to minus degrees so that the carbonic acid remains bound before the sparkling wine is filtered and bottled.

In tank fermentation, the entire process takes place in temperature- and pressure-controlled large tanks. The carbon dioxide produced during the second fermentation is dissolved in the wine and the lees are stirred regularly. Finally, the tank is cooled down and the sparkling wine is filtered and bottled.

Question 9

How is semi-sparkling wine produced?

Accepted Answer

Sparkling wines are wines with carbonic acid, whereby the pressure must be between 1 and 2.5 bar. A distinction is made between exogenous and endogenous carbonic acid.

Exogenous carbon ic acid (more precisely: the gas carbon dioxide, which then dissolves in the liquid in the form of carbonic acid) is added to the still wine after it is finished in a pressure tank(impregnation process). In this case, the gas does not come from wine production, but is usually technically produced. The end product must then be called "sparkling wine with added carbonic acid".

Endogenous carbonic acid, on the other hand, comes from wine production (because during fermentation the yeast converts the sugar of the grapes into alcohol and carbon dioxide ). It is either also (re)added to the finished still wine in the pressurised tank or is produced during a second fermentation of the base wine, during which the carbon dioxide formed cannot escape and therefore dissolves in the wine.

Wines with a carbonic acid pressure of 3 to 6 bar are called sparkling wines.

Question 10

How is Orange Wine made?

Accepted Answer

Orange Wine is, in a way, the counterpart to rosé wine: a wine made from white grapes in the same way as a red wine, i.e. by mash fermentation.

The white grapes are crushed after the harvest so that the colour, aroma and tannins are released from the berry skins. The mash is then fermented. Before it is finally pressed, the young wine is often stored for several months. The wine is often matured in concrete tanks, amphorae or large wooden barrels.

Due to the colour and tannins extracted by the maceration and fermentation, Orange Wine is dark yellow, amber or orange in colour, and the tannin is more or less noticeable in the texture. The aroma is not characterised by fresh fruity notes, but by dried fruits, nuts and earthy tones.

In the production of Orange Wine, numerous measures of conventional winemaking are not applied. These wines are often very low in sulphur, not fined and not filtered. Due to the special form of production and the long maturation period, they are less sensitive to oxidation than regularly produced white wines.

A wine law definition of Orange Wine does not yet exist.

Question 11

What is natural wine?

Accepted Answer

Natural wine is a generic term for wines that have been produced without certain aids and/or processes that are common in winemaking. The term is not defined by wine law and is prohibited as an advertising attribute.

Many natural wines are biodynamically produced, vinified in amphorae or similar, preferably open containers (sometimes in the so-called kachetic process), not sulphurised, not fined and/or not filtered

Question 12

When do you sulphurise wine?

Accepted Answer

The addition of sulphur is an extremely effective method of preservation, stabilisation and sterilisation in winemaking. In this sense, sulphurisation has three essential functions:

Sulphur binds oxygen and thus protects against Oxidationwhich can impair the flavour of the wine.
Sulphur inhibits Enzymeswhich can have a negative influence on the development of wine.
Sulphur removes Microorganisms(yeasts, bacteria, etc.) that can negatively influence the development of wine and spoil it.

Already in the Vineyard sulphur is used as the most effective remedy against fungal diseases such as powdery mildew - also in organic viticulture.

In the Wine cellar sulphur is used in various production steps. For example, the must or mash is already sulphurised to prevent uncontrolled fermentation or oxidation; after fermentation or pressing, theyoung wine is sulphurised to stabilise it; in the course of ageing, it is sulphurised again if necessary; and before bottling, it receives its final sulphurisation to preserve it.

How often and how much sulphur is added depends on a variety of factors - from the grape variety to the quality of the grapes, the production process, cellar hygiene and the desired ageing style. Through its reductive and antiseptic effect and its reaction with other chemical elements, sulphur also influences the smell and taste of the wine.

Sulphur is added in the form of sulphur dioxide, sulphurous acid (sulphur dioxide dissolved in water) or potassium pyrosulphite (the potassium salt of sulphurous acid, abbreviated KPS). The sulphur combines with the water in the wine to form sulphurous acid, and its salts are called sulphites. This is why virtually all wine bears the legally prescribed label "Contains sulphites". Natural wines are usually bottled with minimal sulphurisation or unsulphurised. Their shelf life is often achieved through oxidative ageing.

Sulphites are harmless to health in the quantities permitted by wine law. According to current scientific findings, they are not responsible for possible headaches after (excessive) wine consumption, but biogenic amines (e.g. histamine), which are also contained in wine.

Question 13

Where is wine made?

Accepted Answer

In principle,wine can be produced almost anywhere in the world if a cellar with the appropriate technical equipment is available. However, grapes do not grow everywhere. For economic reasons, wine is in most cases produced in the countries where the vines grow.

The two most important natural prerequisites for viticulture are a moderate climate and suitable soil conditions. The climate characteristics result from the sequence and interaction of various natural factors such as temperature, solar radiation, precipitation, humidity and wind. With regard to the soil, the nutrient content and water supply are particularly important, and these are largely determined by the geological composition. Whether a region is climatically suitable for the cultivation of vines is determined by its viticultural suitability, which is scientifically investigated and determined.

In total, there are about 100 wine-growing countries worldwide - that is about half of all countries on earth. They are mainly located in the so-called vine belts, which roughly extend between the 40th and 50th parallel in the northern hemisphere and between the 30th and 40th parallel in the southern hemisphere. These zones include, for example, Central and Southern Europe, the USA, Chile, Argentina, South Africa, South Australia and New Zealand - all of which are important wine-growing regions

Question 14

What is non-alcoholic wine?

Accepted Answer

Non-alcoholic Wine has a maximum of 0.5 percent by volume or 4 grams per litre of alcohol. In contrast, there is also low-alcohol Wine, which may have between 0.5 and 5 percent alcohol by volume.

To obtain alcohol-free wine, the alcohol produced by fermentation is removed from finished wine (i.e. wine that has been completely vinified in the regular way). This alcohol reduction can be achieved by a number of physical processes. The most common of these are vacuum distillation (distillation at negative pressure between 30 and 60°C) and reverse osmosis (with a semi-permeable membrane and pressure increase). Other methods for reducing the alcohol content, some of which are not permitted in all wine-growing countries, are nanofiltration, high-pressure extraction, electrodialysis, pervaporation or thespinning cone column.

The aim is always to remove the alcohol from the wine, but at the same time as little aroma substances as possible

Question 15

What is Lambrusco?

Accepted Answer

Lambrusco is a fruity, sparkling red wine from Italy. It comes mainly from the Emilia-Romagna region, but can also come from Lombardy, South Tyrol, Piedmont, Puglia, Basilicata or Sicily. It takes its name from the Lambrusco or Lambrusca family of varieties. Protected areas of origin for Lambrusco are - in Emilia-Romagna - Lambrusco di Sorbara, Lambrusco Grasparossa di Castelvetro, Reggiano (Reggiano Lambrusco, Reggiano Lambrusco Salamino) and Lambrusco Salamino di Santa Croce as well as - in Lombardy - Lambrusco Mantovano.

Lambrusco is produced dry or residually sweet and with varying degrees of carbonic acidity as still wine (tranquillo), semi-sparkling wine (Frizzante) or sparkling wine (Spumante). There are two main ways to produce it:

The advantage of the second production method is that the Lambrusco is significantly more aromatic with this variant, while the first variant is less costly. In order to combine the advantages of both methods, mixed variants are also used.

Question 16

What is port wine?

Accepted Answer

Port wine (or just port for short) is a sweet, fortified wine from the Douro region in northern Portugal. It is considered a classic dessert wine and takes its name from the port city Porto, where the Douro River flows into the Atlantic Ocean. It is available in white and red varieties and in different types.

The most important grape variety for red port wine is Touriga Nacional. Other notable varieties are Tinta Amarela, Tinta Barroca, Tinto Cão, Tinta Roriz(Tempranillo) and Touriga Franca as reds, and Arinto, Encruzado, Folgasão and Gouveio(Godello) as whites. The grapes are harvested by hand and then extensively crushed at the winery to release the pigments and tannins (tannins) from the berry skins. The fermentation of the mash is then stopped by adding high-proof brandy (ethanol). As a result, port wine usually has a residual sugar content of 40 to 60 grams per litre and an alcohol content of between 19 and 22 percent by volume. It is then matured for several years in wooden barrels or stainless steel tanks. Most port wines are blended from several vintages.

The most important types of port are:

A significant difference to sherry is that port is fortified during rather than after fermentation.

Question 17

What is sherry?

Accepted Answer

Sherry is a fortified white wine from Andalusia in the south of Spain that undergoes a special ageing process. The area is largely located in the triangle of towns between Jerez de la Frontera (from which sherry takes its name), Sanlúcar de Barrameda and El Puerto de Santa María. Sherry comes in varieties from dry to sweet and in different types.

The Palomino grape variety is widely used for sherry production; other varieties are Moscatel(Muscat d'Alexandrie) and Pedro Ximénez. The grapes are regularly fermented into a dry wine, which is then fortified with high-proof brandy (ethanol). The addition of the alcohol already determines the type of sherry. For sweet sherry, the grapes are dried before pressing to concentrate the sugar; the wine is then also residually sweet after fermentation.

Sherry can be reductive (without the influence of oxygen) or oxidative (with the influence of oxygen). The cellar master decides on this on the basis of the base wines. Reductive types are Fino, Amontillado and Manzanilla, the oxidative type is called Oloroso.

For a reductive sherry, the base wine is fortified after fermentation to about 15.5 percent alcohol by volume, for oloroso sherry to about 17 percent by volume. The fortified wines are then matured in wooden barrels, which are only filled to about 85 per cent (i.e. not bung-full) and are not sealed airtight. In this way, a yeast flor can form on the liquid of the reductive types: a special yeast layer that protects the sherry from the influence of oxygen during the maturation process. The air in the barrel is initially necessary for the growth of the flor yeast and, after it has "blossomed", it is precisely the flor that prevents it from reacting with the wine; the flor yeast cells surround themselves with a wax layer that allows them to rise in the liquid and forms the oxygen barrier on the surface. In the case of strong oloroso sherry, the alcohol content is too high for the yeast flor to form; this type therefore develops oxidatively, it is dark in colour and nutty in aroma.

Traditionally, a sherry is matured in the solera process. The principle is that the barrels are stacked on top of each other. The row of barrels at the bottom is called the "solera", all the barrels above it form the "criadera". Sherry that is ready for bottling is only taken from the bottom row of casks, with each cask being emptied by a maximum of one third. The quantity removed is topped up from the cask above, a process that continues through all the criadera stages. Finally, the top barrel is filled with the very young wine. The solera process continuously blends the vintages so that the sherry takes on a uniform, harmonious taste. In addition, the flor yeast always receives new nourishment so that it does not die off.

In this way, sherry matures for at least three years, with high-quality examples maturing five times as long or more. The most important types of sherry are:

Question 18

What is the difference between champagne, sparkling wine and prosecco?

Accepted Answer

Champagne, sparkling wine and prosecco are all carbonated wines. They differ significantly in their geographical origin, in the grape varieties used for their production, and partly in their colour, carbon dioxide content and production process.

Sekt is the German term for quality sparkling wine. A sparkling wine must have a carbonic acid pressure of at least 3.5 bar and at least 10 percent alcohol by volume. It can be produced purely from one variety or as a cuvée (from several grape varieties), whereby the grape varieties must always be approved for the production of quality wine. If a specific growing region is indicated (sparkling wine psr), the grapes must come from this region and have been processed there. Depending on the basic wine, there are white, rosé or red sparkling wines. The production can take place in tank fermentation(Méthode charmat) or in traditional bottle fermentation (Méthode classique). (For details, see the question "How is sparkling wine made?")

Champagne is a quality sparkling wine from the protected region of origin Champagne in France. It must be produced using the traditional bottle fermentation method (which is therefore also referred to as the méthode champenoise) and may be vinified from a maximum of seven specified grape varieties; the three most common and best-known are Pinot Noir, Pinot Meunier and Chardonnay, while Arbane, Petit Meslier, Pinot Gris and Pinot Blanc are also permitted. The grapes may only come from vineyards in Champagne and must also be processed in the region. Champagne comes in blanc or rosé varieties, both of which can be made from white or red grapes; a blanc de blancs is made exclusively from white grapes, a blanc de noirs exclusively from white-pressed red grapes. Most champagnes are cuvées; in the case of single-varietal champagnes, the grape variety is not always indicated.

Quality sparkling wine from other regions in France is called Crémantwhich can be regarded as a counterpart to the German Sekt; the region is then also part of the protected designation of origin, e.g. Crémant de Loire.

Prosecco is a protected area of origin in northern Italy, which includes parts of the regions of Veneto and Friuli and in which still wines(tranquillo), semi-sparkling wines(frizzante) and sparkling wines (spumante) are produced. In Germany, the term usually refers to Prosecco Frizzante (i.e. the semi-sparkling wine from this region) or Prosecco Spumante (i.e. the sparkling wine from this region). Frizzante has a carbonic acid pressure between 1 and 2.5 bar, Spumante a carbonic acid pressure between 3 and 6 bar. White Prosecco must always be made from at least 85 per cent Glera grape variety (which was also called Prosecco until 2009, but this caused confusion); up to 15 per cent of eight specified other grape varieties may be added. Prosecco Spumante can be produced by tank fermentation or traditional bottle fermentation. Even narrower designations of origin than Prosecco DOC are Prosecco Treviso DOC (from the province of the same name in Veneto) as well as Prosecco di Conegliano Valdobbiadene DOCG and Prosecco Colli Asolani DOCG. In all cases, the grapes must come from the respective area and have been processed there. From 2020, there will also be Proseccco Rosé, which is made from the Pinot Nero grape variety.

Question 19

Who is allowed to make wine?

Accepted Answer

Anyone who has suitable grapes and the necessary oenological expertise as well as the appropriate cellar equipment and who complies with the legal regulations may producewine for private use. In order to produce wine commercially - i.e. with the purpose of making a profit - one must also register an agricultural enterprise with the competent Chamber of Agriculture as well as with the local financial and other administrative authorities. In order to apply for agricultural subsidies, registration with the Office of Agriculture of the competent district administration is required. In addition, the farm must be registered with the Agricultural Employer's Liability Insurance Association and - from a certain cultivated area - with the Agricultural Social Insurance.

The legal basis for viticulture and wine production in Germany is provided by the Wine law and the Wine Ordinance represent the legal basis for viticulture and winemaking in Germany. In addition, the regulations of food law, competition law, consumer protection law, commercial law and tax law apply, as well as corresponding other relevant laws, e.g. hygiene regulations. Anyone who sets up and runs an agricultural business without having any agricultural training - which is not mandatory - must provide evidence of a corresponding expert knowledge examination in order to carry out plant protection measures.

Since these legal regulations as well as the chemical processes involved in winemaking and the cellar-technical procedures are very complex, training as a winemaker or wine technologist (formerly wine cooper) or a degree in viticulture and oenology is strongly recommended. Although both are not formally required to produce wine commercially, they are in fact indispensable.

Question 20

How do you make wine?

Accepted Answer

Wine is made from grapes. The essential steps of winemaking after the grape harvest are pressing, fermentation, maturation, fining and bottling. The decisive process in winemaking is fermentation, in which yeast converts the sugar from the grapes into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The fundamental difference in the production of white and red wine is that fermentation takes place after pressing in the case of white wine (must fermentation) and before pressing in the case of red wine(mash fermentation).

The ripe grapes are harvested in the vineyard (harvest) and then first lightly crushed. This is how the mash is produced: the mixture of juice, pulp, skins and seeds. The colouring substances of the grapes are located in the skins - the pulp is also light in red grapes - and through the maceration, the juice of the grapes begins to dissolve the colouring substances from the skins.

To make white wine (from white grapes) or Rosé wine (from red grapes), the mash is then pressed after a short standing time (a few hours). This produces the must (the pressed juice of the grapes) and the marc (the solid residues such as skins, seeds, stems). To produce white wine from red grapes, the grapes are pressed immediately and without any maceration time (so that no colouring substances are released from the skins). The must is then fermented. The yeast necessary for this is either added(pure culture yeast), or natural yeasts are used; then fermentation starts automatically. Fermentation not only forms the alcohol, but is also responsible for a large part of the wine's aromas.

To make red wine (from red grapes) or Orange Wine (from white grapes), the entire mash is fermented. In the process, not only the colouring substances are released from the grape skins, but alsotannins, which are found in the skins and seeds. This is why red wines and orange wines have tannins that taste slightly bitter and can have an astringent effect in the mouth. Fermentation also takes place either with pure cultured yeasts or with natural yeasts, and only then is pressing carried out. During this process, the resulting young wine is separated from the marc.

After fermentation (and subsequent pressing for red wine and orange wine), the young wine is first filtered to remove the yeast residue from the fermentation. This is followed by ageing: the young wine is stored for a certain time (weeks, months, years) in stainless steel tanks or in wooden barrels(large wooden barrels, barrique). During this time, the aroma and, depending on the length of maturation, the texture change again.

At the end of the ageing period, the wine is clarified and fined to stabilise it before it is subsequently bottled.

These general steps of winemaking can be divided into numerous small intermediate steps. These are explained in detail, subdivided by type of wine, in the following articles:

How is white wine made?
How is red wine made?
How is rosé wine made?
How is Orange Wine made?

One more note: It is not possible within the framework of this description to give anything like instructions on how to make wine. Only individual steps can be described here in more or less general terms. To learn how to make wine, there are specific training courses(winemaker, wine technologist) and courses of study(viticulture and oenology) as well as - also independent of this - textbooks and the possibility of doing an internship in a winery.

Question 21

How is wine made?

Accepted Answer

Wine is made from grapes. The crucial process in winemaking is fermentation, where yeast converts the sugar from the grapes into alcohol and carbon dioxide.

After the Harvest (i.e. harvest), the ripe grapes are first lightly crushed. This produces the mash: the mixture of juice, pulp, skins and seeds. Depending on the type of wine (i.e. wine colour), the grapes are then immediately pressed and the must (the pressed juice of the grapes) is subsequently fermented (white wine, rosé wine), or the entire mash is fermented and only then pressed(red wine, orange wine). The solid residue after pressing (skins, seeds, stems) is called pomace.

Red and rosé wine is made from red grapes. White wine and orange wine are made from white grapes, although red grapes can also be made into white wine(Blanc de Noirs). The colouring substances of the grapes are located in the skins - the pulp is also light in red grapes. In order to extract them, the red grapes are first thoroughly macerated so that the juice in the mash can dissolve the pigments from the skins. At the same time, thetannins, which are found in the skins and seeds, are also released; this is why red wines, in contrast to white wines, have tannins that taste slightly bitter and can have an astringent effect in the mouth. For rosé wine, even a short maceration period after crushing the red grapes is sufficient for the juice to begin to release the colouring substances from the skins. Once this process has begun, the crushed red grapes are pressed. The resulting must has a light red colour and significantly fewer tannins than red wine. When making white wine, the crushed white grapes are also pressed quickly; the must is light yellow and has no tannins. To make a white wine from red grapes, the grapes are pressed immediately without any maceration time. Then, in all three cases (white wine from white grapes, white wine from red grapes and rosé wine from red grapes), the must is fermented into wine. Orange Wine is a mash-fermented wine made from white grapes; it gets a dark yellow colour from the maceration (which gives it its name) and also tannins from the skins and seeds of the white grapes.

The must is fermented to make white and rosé wine(must fermentation), while the mash is fermented to make red wine and orange wine(mash fermentation). The main difference between the types of wine is therefore the time during vinification when the grapes are pressed: whether before or after fermentation. The yeast required for fermentation is either added(pure culture yeast) or natural ye asts are used; then fermentation starts automatically. Fermentation then not only forms the alcohol, but is also responsible for much of the wine's aromas.

After fermentation (and subsequent pressing in the case of red wine and orange wine), the so-called young wine is created in any case. This is then first filtered to remove the yeast residue from the fermentation. The young wine is then agedthe young wine is then aged for a certain period of time (weeks, months, years) in stainless steel tanks or in wooden barrels(large wooden barrels, barriques). During this time, the aroma and, depending on the length of maturation, the texture change again. At the end of the ageing period Clarification and Finingto stabilise the wine before it is bottled bottled bottled.

These general steps of winemaking can be divided into numerous small intermediate steps. These are explained in detail, subdivided by type of wine, in the following articles:

How is white wine made?
How is red wine made?
How is rosé wine made?
How is Orange Wine made?

Question 22

Why is wine not vegan?

Accepted Answer

Althoughwine consists exclusively of fermented grapes, products of animal origin are also used in the production process when working conventionally in the cellar.

Such animal products are used, for example, in fining - after fermentation and ageing of the wine - to remove lees from the wine. Such lees are residues from winemaking and can be bound by proteins. These proteins are usually obtained from chicken eggs (egg white), milk(casein), animal bones, cartilage and skins(gelatine) or the swim bladders of fish(isinglass).

The proteins are aids in winemaking and are filtered out of the wine after fining together with the bound lees. However, since they come into contact with the wine and react with it, residues cannot be completely ruled out. Therefore, a wine is usually not vegan and may not then be called so.

Vegan wines are and are called wines that have been fined with, for example, mineral earth(bentonite) instead of protein. In the case of vegetarian wine, only the use of gelatine and fish bladder as fining agents is dispensed with

Question 23

How long does wine have to ferment?

Accepted Answer

During fermentation, yeasts convert the sugar from the grapes into alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide; heat (energy) is generated in the process. The duration of this process depends on several factors, such as the temperature, the type of yeast used, the size of the fermentation container and the ripeness (i.e. sugar content) of the grapes. On average, alcoholic fermentation takes about ten days - sometimes just under a week, more often two to three weeks. In rare exceptional cases, fermentation can even last several months.

As mentioned, the winemaker can actively influence the course and duration of fermentation, for example by choosing the yeasts and controlling the temperature:

Yeasts are already present in the must or mash in natural form, provided they have not been killed by sulphurisation. If these natural yeasts are used to ferment the must or mash, this is called Spontaneous fermentation. However, this type of fermentation has uncertainties because the natural yeasts may not be strong enough to complete the fermentation completely or may produce undesirable chemical compounds that can affect the aroma of the wine or even pose health risks. Therefore, the natural yeasts are often killed by sulphurisation in order to subsequently carry out the fermentation in a controlled manner with pure-breeding yeasts.

Pure-breeding yeasts have certain properties which - because they have been specially bred - are already known in advance. This means that they can be specifically selected and used for the fermentation of the must or mash. With appropriately bred yeasts, the aromatic character of the wine can also be influenced to a great extent. The addition of fermentation aids and yeast nutrient salts can support the work of the pure-bred yeasts.

An important factor in fermentation is temperature. Traditionally, the fermentation temperature was more or less self-regulating and depended on the cellar temperature. In modern cellars, the fermentation tanks can be cooled and the fermentation temperature thus actively controlled: the lower the temperature, the slower the fermentation process(cold fermentation). The size of the fermentation tanks also affects the fermentation temperature: the smaller the tanks, the lower the fermentation temperature. The fermentation temperature and the associated fermentation time have a great influence on the style of the wine.

The yeasts usually work until either the sugar present in the grapes (or added) is completely converted into alcohol or the alcohol content becomes so high that the yeasts stop working. They then become sluggish and die off, as they cannot survive in an excessively alcoholic environment. Among the pure-breeding yeasts, however, there are particularly efficient types that can easily reach 16 percent by volume.

If the winemaker wants a residual sweetness Wine, he can stop fermentation prematurely. This can be done by cooling or by adding sulphur. A third variant is to leave the wine to ferment fully and then add sweet reserve to subsequently increase the sugar content of the wine again. The sweet reserve is unfermented (i.e. sweet) grape must that has been protected from undesired fermentation by sterilisation.

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Wine production

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How is wine produced? How are the different types of wine made and what is sulphur used for?

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